Buddhism

Buddhism

Religion and philosophy that developed from the teachings of the Buddha Gautama who lived in the 6th century BCE. He was born Siddhartha in present-day Nepal.

He left his palace at age 29 to wander out among the people.

Shocked by the suffering he saw, he lived for 6 years in a cave until he realized that he had to find a Middle Way between asceticism and indulgence.

- Achieved enlightenment under tree near the Ghanghes River.

Spread from India Central and Southeast Asia, China, Korea, and Japan.

4 Noble Truths:

1. there is suffering in the world,

2. suffering occurs from too great attachment to one's desires,

3. by eliminating the cause of one's desires, you can eliminate suffering;

4. there is a method of eliminating the cause = 8-fold path

8-fold path = guide to wisdom, virtue mental discipline, effort, mindfulness, concentration.

Meditation is one of the tools of the 8-fold path.

- "Buddha Rising", National Geographic December, 2005, pp. 96-97.

From the Encyclopedia Britannica:

Buddhism came into being in northeastern India during theperiod from the late 6th century to the early 4th century BC, a period of great social change and intense religious activity. There is disagreement among scholars about the dates of the Buddha's birth and death. Most scholars in Europe, the United States, and India believe that the historical Buddha lived from about 563 to about 483 BC. Many others, especially in Japan, believe that he lived about 100 years later (from about 448 to 368 BC).

… In northwestern India there were ascetics who tried to go beyond the Vedas (Hindu sacred scriptures). In the literature that grew out of this movement, the Upanishads, a new emphasis on renunciation and transcendental knowledge can be found. But northeastern India, which was less influenced by the Aryans who had developed the main tenets and practices of the Vedic Hindu faith, became the breeding ground of many heterodox sects. Society in this area was troubled by the breakdown of tribal unity and the expansion of several petty kingdoms. Religiously, this was a time of doubt, turmoil, and experimentation.

… Among the most important sects to arise at the time of the Buddha were … the Jainas, an ascetic movement stressing the need to free the soul from matter. Though the Jainas, like the Buddhists, have often been regarded as atheists, their beliefs are actually more complicated…

Nirvana = transcendent freedom.

Atman = self or soul.

Karma = causality.

Buddha = enlightened one.

Samsara = eternal recurrence, becoming.

Dhamma = rule or law.

Most contemporary religious ideas were based on the practice of yoga.

According to tradition, the Buddha himself was a yogi—that is, a miracle-working ascetic.

Buddhism, like many of the sects that developed in northeastern India at the time, was constituted by the presence of a charismatic teacher, by the teachings this leader promulgated, and by a community of adherents that was often made up of renunciant members and lay supporters. In the case of Buddhism this pattern became the basis for the Triratna—the “Three Jewels” of Buddha (the teacher), dharma (the teaching), and sangha (the community)—in which Buddhists have traditionally taken refuge.

Suffering, impermanence, and no-self

It may be said that the Buddha based his entire teaching on the fact of human suffering. Existence is painful. The conditions that make an individual are precisely those that also give rise to suffering. Individuality implies limitation; limitation gives rise to desire; and, inevitably, desire causes suffering, since what is desired is transitory, changing, and perishing. It is the impermanence of the object of craving that causes disappointment and sorrow. By following the “path” taught by the Buddha, the individual can dispel the “ignorance” that perpetuates this suffering. The Buddha's doctrine was not one of despair. Living amid the impermanence of everything and being themselves impermanent, human beings search for the way of deliverance, for that which shines beyond the transitoriness of human existence—in short, for enlightenment.

According to the Buddha, reality, whether of external things or the psychophysical totality of human individuals, consists in a succession and concatenation of microseconds called dhammas (these “components” of reality are not to be confused with dhamma meaning “law” or “teaching”). The Buddha departed from the main lines of traditional Indian thought in not asserting an essential or ultimate reality in things.

Moreover, contrary to the theories of the Upanishads, the Buddha did not want to assume the existence of the soul as a metaphysical substance, but he admitted the existence of the self as the subject of action in a practical and moral sense. Life is a stream of becoming, a series of manifestations and extinctions. The concept of the individual ego is a popular delusion; the objects with which people identify themselves—fortune, social position, family,body, and even mind—are not their true selves. There is nothing permanent, and, if only the permanent deserved to be called the self, or atman, then nothing is self. There canbe no individuality without a putting together of components. This is becoming different, and there can be no way of becoming different without a dissolution, a passing away.

To make clear the concept of no-self (anatman), Buddhistsset forth the theory of the five aggregates or constituents (khandhas) of human existence: (1) corporeality or physical forms (r¨pa), (2) feelings or sensations (vedan(), (3) ideations (saññ(), (4) mental formations or dispositions (sankh(ra), and (5) consciousness (viññ(pa). Human existence is only a composite of the five aggregates, none of which is the self or soul. A person is in a process of continuous change, with no fixed underlying entity.

Karma

The belief in rebirth, or samsara, as a potentially endless series of worldly existences in which every being is caught up was already associated with the doctrine of karma (Sanskrit: karman; literally “act,” or “deed”) in pre-Buddhist India, and it was generally accepted by both the Therav(daand the Mah(y(na traditions. According to the doctrine of karma, good conduct brings a pleasant and happy result and creates a tendency toward similar good acts, while badconduct brings an evil result and creates a tendency toward repeated evil actions. This furnishes the basic context for the moral life of the individual.

Some karmas bear fruit in the same life in which they are committed, others in the immediately succeeding one, and others in future lives that are more remote.

The acceptance by Buddhists of the belief in karma and rebirth while holding to the doctrine of no-self gave rise to adifficult problem: how can rebirth take place without a permanent subject to be reborn? Indian non-Buddhist philosophers attacked this vulnerable point in Buddhist thought, and many modern scholars have also considered it to be an insoluble question. The relation between existences in rebirth has been explained by the analogy of fire, which maintains itself unchanged in appearance and yet is different in every moment—what may be called the continuity of an ever-changing identity.

The foundations of Buddhism

The Buddha's message

The Four Noble Truths

Awareness of these fundamental realities led the Buddha to formulate the Four Noble Truths: the truth of misery, the truth that misery originates within us from the craving for pleasure and for being or nonbeing, the truth that this craving can be eliminated, and the truth that this elimination is the result of a methodical way or path that must be followed. Thus, there must be an understanding of the mechanism by which a human being's psychophysical being evolves; otherwise, human beings would remain indefinitely in samsara, in the continual flow of transitory existence.

The law of dependent origination

Hence, the Buddha formulated the law of dependent origination (pa¡icca-samupp(da), whereby one condition arises out of another, which in turn arises out of prior conditions. Every mode of being presupposes another immediately preceding mode from which the subsequent mode derives, in a chain of causes. According to the classical rendering, the 12 links in the chain are ignorance (avijj(), karmic predispositions (sankh(ras), consciousness (viññ(pa), form and body (n(ma-r¨pa), the five sense organs and the mind (sag(yatana), contact (phassa), feeling-response (vedan(), craving (taph(), grasping for an object (up(d(na), action toward life (bhava), birth (j(ti), and old age and death (jar(marapa). Thus, the misery that is bound up with all sensate existence is accounted for by a methodical chain of causation.

The law of dependent origination of the various aspects of becoming remains invariable and fundamental in all schools of Buddhism. There are, however, diverse interpretations.

The foundations of Buddhism

The Buddha's message

The Eightfold Path

Given the awareness of this law, the question arises as to how one may escape the continually renewed cycle of birth, suffering, and death. Here ethical conduct enters in. It is not enough to know that misery pervades all existence and to know the way in which life evolves; there must also be a purification that leads to the overcoming of this process. Such a liberating purification is effected by following the Noble Eightfold Path constituted by right views, right aspirations, right speech, right conduct, right livelihood, right effort, right mindfulness, and right meditational attainment. The term right (true or correct) is used to distinguish sharply between the precepts of the Buddha and other teachings.

Nirvana

The aim of religious practice is to be rid of the delusion of ego, thus freeing oneself from the fetters of this mundane world. One who is successful in doing so is said to have overcome the round of rebirths and to have achieved enlightenment. This is the final goal—not a paradise or a heavenly world.

The living process is likened to a fire burning. Its remedy is the extinction of the fire of illusion, passions, and cravings. The Buddha, the Enlightened One, is one who is no longer kindled or enflamed. Many poetic terms are used to describe the state of the enlightened human being—the harbour of refuge, the cool cave, the place of bliss, the farther shore. The term that has become famous in the West is nirvana, translated as dying out—that is, the dying out in the heart of the fierce fires of lust, anger, and delusion. But nirvana is not extinction, and indeed the craving for annihilation or nonexistence was expressly repudiated by the Buddha. Buddhists search not for mere cessation but for salvation. Though nirvana is often presented negatively as “release from suffering,” it is more accurate to describe it in a more positive fashion: as an ultimate goal to be sought and cherished.

The Buddha left indeterminate questions regarding the destiny of persons who have reached this ultimate goal. Heeven refused to speculate as to whether such purified saints, after death, continued to exist or ceased to exist. Such questions, he maintained, were not relevant to the practice of the path and could not in any event be answered from within the confines of ordinary human existence.

Though it is true that the Buddha avoided discussion of theultimate condition that lay beyond the categories of the phenomenal world, he often affirmed the reality of the religious goal. For example, he is reported to have said: “There is an unborn, an unoriginated, an unmade, an uncompounded; were there not, there would be no escape from the world of the born, the originated, the made, and the compounded.”

In his teaching, the Buddha strongly asserted that the ontological status and character of the unconditioned nirvana cannot be delineated in a way that does not distort or misrepresent it. But what is more important is that he asserted with even more insistence that nirvana can be experienced—and experienced in this present existence—by those who, knowing the Buddhist truth, practice the Buddhist path.

Historical development

India

Expansion of Buddhism

The Buddha was a charismatic leader who discovered and proclaimed a religious message and founded a distinctive religious community. Some of the members of that community were, like the Buddha himself, wandering ascetics. Others were laypersons who venerated the Buddha, followed those aspects of his teachings that were relevant to them, and provided the wandering ascetics with the material support that they required.

During the first several centuries after the Buddha's death, the story of his life was remembered and embellished, his teachings were preserved and developed, and the community that he had established became a significant religious force. Many of the followers of the Buddha who were wandering ascetics began to settle in permanent monastic establishments and to develop the procedures needed to maintain large monastic institutions. At the sametime, the Buddhist laity came to include important membersof the economic and political elite.

During the first century of its existence Buddhism spread from its place of origin in Magadha and Kosala throughout much of northern India, including the areas of Mathur( and UjjayanY in the west. According to the Buddhist tradition, invitations to the Council of Ves(lY (Sanskrit: Vaiˆ(lY), held just over a century after the Buddha's death, were sent to monks living in many distant places throughout northern and central India. By the middle of the 3rd century BC, Buddhism had gained the favour of a Mauryan king who had established an empire that extended from the Himalayas in the north almost as far south as Sri Lanka.

To the rulers of the kingdoms and republics arising in northeastern India, the patronage of heteroprax sects (those with differing practices) was one way of counterbalancing the enormous political power enjoyed by Brahmans (high-caste Hindus) in the affairs of state. The first Mauryan emperor, Candra Gupta (c. 321–c. 297 BC), patronized Jainism and finally became a Jaina monk. His grandson, Aˆoka, who ruled over the greater part of the subcontinent from about 270 to 230 BC, became the archetypal Buddhist king. Aˆoka attempted to establish in his realm a “true dhamma” based on the virtuesof self-control, impartiality, cheerfulness, truthfulness, and goodness. Though he did not found a state church, he did attempt to forge a Buddhist-oriented religiopolitical culture that would include Hindu, Jaina, )jYvika ()[Yvaka), and Buddhist alike. His aim was to create a religious and social milieu that would enable all “children of the king” to live happily and attain heaven in the next life. Thus, he created a “welfare state” by setting up medical assistance for menand beasts, maintaining reservoirs and canals, and promoting trade. A system of dhamma officers (dhamma-mah(mattas) was set up to provide for the empire magistrates, district attorneys, preachers, bureaucrats, social workers, and spies. The lay ethic preached by the king of the dhamma (dhamma-r(ja) and his officers was focused on the layman's obligations in this world. Though Aˆoka created a new ideal of kingship that would have powerful repercussions throughout the later Buddhist world, the various problems posed by a state of such vast dimensions in India proved greater than he couldsolve. Soon after Aˆoka's death, the Mauryan empire beganto crumble.

Although Buddhists seem to have suffered some persecutions during the subsequent ‰unga–K(pva period (185–28 BC), Buddhism succeeded in maintaining and even expanding its influence. Buddhist monastic centres and magnificent Buddhist monuments such as the great stupas at Bh(rhut and S(ñchi were established throughoutthe subcontinent, and these institutions often received royalpatronage. In the early centuries of the Common era, Buddhism was especially flourishing in northwestern India, and from there it spread rapidly into Central Asia and China.

Buddhism under the Guptas and P(las

By the time of the Gupta dynasty (c. AD 320–c. 600), Buddhism in India was being affected by the revival of Brahmanic religion and the rising tide of bhakti (a devotional movement that emphasized the intense love of adevotee for a personal god). During this period, for example, some Hindus were practicing devotion to the Buddha, whom they regarded as an avatar (incarnation) of the Hindu deity Vishnu.

During the Gupta period some monasteries joined together to form monastic centres (mah(vih(ras) that functioned as universities. The most famous of these, located at N(land(,had a curriculum that went far beyond the bounds of traditional Buddhism. N(land( soon became the leading centre for the study of Mah(y(na, which was rapidly becoming the dominant Buddhist tradition in India.

Though Buddhist institutions seemed to be faring well under the Guptas, various Chinese pilgrims visiting India between AD 400 and 700 could discern an internal decline in the Buddhist community and the beginning of the reabsorption of Indian Buddhism by Hinduism. Among these pilgrims were Fa-hsien, Sung Yün, Hui-sheng, Hsüan-tsang, and I-ching.

The accounts of these Chinese travelers provide invaluable information about Asian cultures from the S(s(nian (Persian) empire in the west to Sumatra and Java in the east, and from Turfan in Central Asia to K(ñchi in the southof India. In 399 Fa-hsien left China, crossed the Gobi (Desert), and visited various holy places in India. He then returned to China via Sri Lanka and Java, taking with him numerous Buddhist scriptures and statues. The most famous of the Chinese travelers was the 7th-century monk Hsüan-tsang. When he arrived in northwestern India, he found “millions of monasteries” reduced to ruins by the Huns, a nomadic Central Asian people. Many of the remaining Buddhists were developing their own form of Tantrism, an esoteric psychic-physical system of belief and practice. In the northeast, Hsüan-tsang visited various holy places and studied Yog(c(ra, a Mah(y(na system, and Indian philosophy at N(land(. After visiting Assam and southern India he returned to China with some 600 sutras.

After the destruction of numerous Buddhist monasteries in the 6th century AD by the Huns, Buddhism revived, especially in the northeast, where it flourished for a time under the Buddhist P(la kings (8th–12th century AD). These kings continued to protect the great monastic establishments (mah(vih(ras), building such new centres as OdantapurY, near N(land(, and establishing a system ofsupervision for all such institutions. Under the P(las, Tantric Buddhism (i.e., Vajray(na) became the dominant sect. Adepts of this sect, called siddhas, identified nirvanawith the passions, maintaining that one could “touch the deathless element with his body.” Though some of its practices seemed excessive, scholars of this school sought to revalorize some of the most archaic elements in Indian religion. During this period, the university of N(land( became a centre for the study of Tantric Buddhism and the practice of Tantric magic and rituals. Under the P(la kings, contacts with China decreased as Indians began to turn their attention to Tibet and Southeast Asia.

Historical development

India

The decline of Buddhism in India

With the collapse of the P(la dynasty in the 12th century, Buddhism suffered another defeat, and this time it did not recover. Though some pockets of Buddhist influence remained, the Buddhist presence in India became so negligible that it could hardly be noticed.

Scholars do not know all the factors that contributed to the demise of Buddhism in its original homeland. Some have maintained that Buddhism was so tolerant of other faiths that it was simply reabsorbed by a revitalized Hindu tradition. This did occur, although Indian Mah(y(nists occasionally displayed a hostile attitude toward bhakti and toward Hinduism in general. However, there was another factor that was very important as well: Buddhism in India, having become mainly a monastic movement, probably paid little heed to the laity. Some monasteries became wealthy enough to have slaves and hired labourers to care for the monks and tend the lands they owned. Thus, after the Muslim invaders sacked the Indian monasteries in the 12th century AD, Buddhists had little basis for recovery. After the destruction of the monasteries, the Buddhist laity showed little interest in restoring the “Way.”

Contemporary revival

At the beginning of the 20th century Buddhism was virtuallyextinct in India. Since the early 1900s, however, a significant Buddhist presence has been reestablished. In the early decades of the 20th century a number of Buddhistsocieties were organized by Indian intellectuals who found in Buddhism an alternative to a Hindu tradition that they could no longer accept; an alternative that was, in addition, part of the cultural heritage of India. Following the Chinese conquest of Tibet in the late 1950s, there was an influx of Tibetan Buddhists who established a highly visible Buddhist community in northern India. In addition, the incorporation of Sikkim in 1975 into the Republic of India has brought into the modern Indian nation a small Himalayan society that has a strong Buddhist tradition related to the Vajray(na Buddhism of Tibet.

The major component in the 20th-century resurgence of Buddhism in India has, however, been the mass conversionof large numbers of people from the so-called scheduled castes (formerly called Untouchables). This conversion movement, originally led by Bhimrao Ramji Ambedkar, began in the 1950s. In October 1956 Ambedkar and severalhundred thousand of his followers converted to Buddhism, and—although accurate figures are difficult to determine—the group has continued to grow. Some estimates indicate that the number of converts is as high asfour million. This group, which in the past has tended to favour the Therav(da version of Buddhism, is developing itsown distinctive patterns of Buddhist teaching and practice.

Historical development

India

The decline of Buddhism in India

Contemporary revival

Historical development

Sri Lanka and Southeast Asia

Southeast Asia

The peoples of Southeast Asia have not been mere satellites of the more powerful Indian and Chinese civilizations. On the contrary, the cultures that arose in these three vast areas might better be thought of as alternative developments that occurred within a greater Austroasiatic civilization, sometimes called “Asia of the monsoons.” Therefore, the transmission of Buddhism and Hinduism to Southeast Asia can be regarded as the spreadof the religious symbols of the more “advanced” elements within this Austroasiatic cluster to peoples sharing some of the basic religious presuppositions and traditions.

In Southeast Asia the Buddhist impact has been made in very different ways in three different regions. In two of these(the region of Malaysia/Indonesia and the region on the mainland extending from Myanmar to southern Vietnam), the main connections have been via trade routes with India and Sri Lanka. In Vietnam the main connections have been with China.

Malaysia and Indonesia

Though some scholars locate the Suvarpabh¨mi (“Land of Gold”), to which Aˆokan missionaries were supposedly sent, somewhere on the Malay Peninsula or in Indonesia, this is probably not accurate. It is, however, quite certain that Buddhism reached these areas by the beginning centuries of the 1st millennium AD.

With the help of Indian missionaries such as the monk Gupavarman, Buddhism had gained a firm foothold on Java well before the 5th century AD. Buddhism was also introduced at about this time in Sumatra, and, by the 7th century, the king of ‰rYvijaya on the island of Sumatra was a Buddhist. When the Chinese traveler I-ching visited this kingdom in the 7th century, he noted that HYnay(na was dominant in the area but that there were also a few Mah(y(nists. It was also in the 7th century that the great scholar Dharmap(la from N(land( visited Indonesia.

The ‰ailendra dynasty, which ruled over the Malay Peninsula and a large section of Indonesia from the 7th to the 9th century, promoted the Mah(y(na and Tantric forms of Buddhism. During this period major Buddhist monuments were erected in Java, among them the marvelous Borobu;ur, which is perhaps the most magnificent of all Buddhist stupas. From the 7th century onward, Vajray(na Buddhism spread rapidly throughout the area. King Kertanagara of Java (reigned 1268–92) was especially devoted to Tantric practice.

In the Malay Peninsula and Indonesia, as in India, Buddhism gradually lost its hold during the first half of the 2nd millennium AD. In many areas Buddhism was assimilated to Hinduism, forming a Hindu-oriented amalgam that in some places (for example in Bali) has persisted to the present. In most of Malaysia and Indonesia,however, both Hinduism and Buddhism were replaced by Isl(m, which remains the dominant religion in the area. (In modern Indonesia and Malaysia, Buddhism exists as a living religion only among the Chinese minority, but there isa growing community of converts, with its greatest strength in the vicinity of Borobu;ur.)

Historical development

Sri Lanka and Southeast Asia

Southeast Asia

From Myanmar to the Mekong delta

A second pattern of Buddhist expansion in Southeast Asia developed in the mainland area that extends from Myanmarin the north and west to the Mekong delta in the south and east. According to the local Mon/Burman traditions, this is the area of Suvarpabh¨mi that was visited by missionaries from the Aˆokan court. It is known that, by the early centuries of the 1st millennium AD, Buddhist kingdoms were beginning to appear in this region. In Myanmar and Thailand—despite the presence of Hindu, Mah(y(na, and Vajray(na elements—the more conservative HYnay(na forms of Buddhism were especially prominent throughout the 1st millennium AD. Farther to the east and south, in what is now Kampuchea (Cambodia) and southern Vietnam, various combinations of Hinduism, Mah(y(na Buddhism, and Vajray(na Buddhism became dominant. Throughout much of the history of Angkor, the great imperial centre that dominated Kampuchea and much of the surrounding areas for many centuries, Hinduism seemsto have been the preferred tradition, at least among the elite. In the late 12th and early 13th centuries, however, theBuddhist King Jayavarman VII built a new capital called Angkor Thom that was dominated by Mah(y(na/Vajray(na monuments; these monuments represent one of the high points of Buddhist architectural achievement.

In mainland Southeast Asia, as in Sri Lanka, a Therav(da reform movement began to develop in the 11th century. Drawing heavily on the Therav(da heritage that had been preserved among the Mon in southern Myanmar, as well ason the new reform tradition that was developing in Sri Lanka, this revival soon established the Therav(da traditionas the most dynamic tradition in Myanmar, where the Burmans had conquered the Mon. By the late 13th century the reform movement had spread to Thailand, where the Thai were gradually displacing the Mon as the dominant population. Within another two centuries the Therav(da reformers had spread their tradition to Kampuchea and Laos.

The Therav(da preeminence that was thus established remained basically intact throughout the area during the remainder of the premodern period. The arrival of the Western powers in the 19th century, however, brought important changes. In Thailand, which retained its independence, a process of gradual reform and modernization took place. During the 19th century leadership in the reform and modernization process was taken by a new Buddhist sect, the Thammayut Nik(ya, which was established and supported by the reigning Chakri dynasty. More recently, the reform and modernization process has become more diversified and has affected virtually all segments of the Thai Buddhist community.

Two Buddhist groups, Santi Asoke (founded 1975) and Dharmakaya, are especially interesting. Because of their hard-line demands for religious and moral reforms, both groups are at odds with the established ecclesiastical hierarchy. But, despite pressures from the government, they have acquired a large popular following.

In the other Therav(Pa countries in Southeast Asia, Buddhism has had a much more difficult time. In Myanmar,which endured an extended period of British rule, the sangha and the structures of Buddhist society have been seriously disrupted. Under the military regime of General Ne Win, established in 1962, reform and modernization were limited in all areas of national life, including religion. InLaos and Kampuchea, both of which suffered an extended period of French rule followed by the devastation of the Vietnam War and the violent imposition of communist rule, the Buddhist community has been severely crippled. During the late 20th century, however, many signs of a Buddhist revival began to appear.

Vietnam

There are some indications that Vietnam was involved in the early sea trade between India, Southeast Asia, and China and that Buddhism reached the country around the beginning of the 1st millennium AD, brought by missionaries traveling between India and the Chinese empire. The northern part of what is now Vietnam had beenconquered by the Chinese empire in 111 BC; it remained under Chinese rule until AD 939. In the south there were two Indianized states, Funan (founded during the 1st century AD) and Champa (founded AD 192). In these areas both HYnay(na and Mah(y(na traditions were represented. The traditions that most affected the long-termdevelopment of Buddhism in Vietnam, however, were Zen and Pure Land traditions introduced from China into the northern and central sections of the country beginning in the 6th century AD.

The first dhy(na (Zen; Vietnamese: thiên), or “meditation,” school was introduced by VinYtaruci, an Indian monk who had come to Vietnam from China in the 6th century. In the 9th century a school of “wall meditation” was introduced by the Chinese monk Vo Ngon Thong. A third major Zen school was established in the 11th century by the Chinese monk Thao Durong. From 1414 to 1428 Buddhism in Vietnam was persecuted by the Chinese, who had again conquered the country. Tantrism, Taoism, and Confucianism were also filtering into Vietnam at this time. Even after the Chinese had been driven back, a Chinese-like bureaucracy closely supervised the Vietnamese monasteries. The clergy was divided between the highborn and Sinicized (Chinese-influenced), on the one hand, and those in the lower ranks who often were active in peasant uprisings.

During the modern period these Mah(y(na traditions centred in northern and central Vietnam have coexisted with Therav(da traditions that have spilled over from Kampuchea in the south. Rather loosely joined together, the Vietnamese Buddhists managed to preserve their traditions through the period of French colonial rule in the 19th and 20th centuries. During the struggle between Northand South Vietnam in the 1960s and early '70s, many Buddhists worked to achieve peace and reconciliation, but they met with little success. Under the communist regime that completed its victory in Vietnam in the early 1970s, conditions have been difficult, but Buddhism has persisted.Reports in the late 1980s and early '90s indicated that new signs of vitality were beginning to appear.

Historical development

Central Asia and China

Central Asia

The spread of Buddhism into Central Asia is still not completely understood by historians. But, however murky the details may be, it is clear that the trade routes that ran from northwestern India to northern China facilitated both the introduction of Buddhism and the maintenance, for many centuries, of a flourishing Buddhist culture.

By the beginning of the Common era, Buddhism had probably been introduced into eastern Turkistan. According to tradition, a son of Aˆoka founded the kingdomof Khotan around 240 BC. The grandson of this king supposedly introduced Buddhism to Khotan, where it became the state religion. On more secure historical grounds, it is clear that the support given by the Indo-Scythian king Kani—ka of the Kush(n (Ku—(pa) dynasty, which ruled in northern India, Afghanistan, and parts of Central Asia in the 1st to 2nd century AD, encouraged the spread of Buddhism into Central Asia. Kani—ka purportedly called an important Buddhist council; he patronized the Gandh(ra school of Buddhist art, which introduced Greek and Persian elements into Buddhist iconography; and he supported Buddhist expansion within a vast region that extended far into the Central Asian heartland. In the northern part of Chinese Turkistan, Buddhism spread from Kucha (K'u-ch'e) to the kingdoms ofAgnideˆa (Karashahr), Kao-ch'ang (Turfan), and Bharuka (Aksu). According to Chinese travelers who visited Central Asia, the HYnay(nists (at least at the time of their visits) were strongest in Turfan, Shanshan, Kashgar, and Kucha, while Mah(y(na strongholds were located in Yarkand and Khotan.

In Central Asia there was a confusing welter of languages, religions, and cultures, and, as Buddhism interacted with these various traditions, it changed and developed. Shamanism, Zoroastrianism, Nestorian Christianity, and Isl(m all penetrated these lands and coexisted with Buddhism. For example, some of the Mah(y(na bodhisattvas, such as Amit(bha, may have been inspired, in part, by Zoroastrian influence. There is also evidence of some degree of syncretism between Buddhism and Manichaeism, an Iranian dualistic religion that was founded in the 3rd century AD.

Buddhism continued to flourish in parts of Central Asia untilthe 11th century, particularly under the patronage of the Uighur Turks. With the increasingly successful incursions of Isl(m (beginning in the 7th century AD) and the decline of the T'ang dynasty (618–907) in China, however, Central Asia ceased to be the important crossroads of Indian and Chinese culture that it once had been. Buddhism in the area gradually became a thing of the past.

China

Although there are reports of Buddhists in China as early as the 3rd century BC, Buddhism was not actively propagated in that country until the early centuries of the Common era. Tradition has it that Buddhism was introduced after the Han emperor Ming Ti (reigned AD 57/58–75/76) had a dream of a flying golden deity that was interpreted as a vision of the Buddha. Accordingly, the emperor dispatched emissaries to India who subsequently returned to China with the Sutra in Forty-two Sections, which was deposited in a temple outside the capital of Lo-yang. In actuality, Buddhism entered China gradually, first primarily through Central Asia and, later, by way of the trade routes around and through Southeast Asia.

Historical development

Central Asia and China

China

The early centuries

The Buddhism that first became popular in China during the Han dynasty was deeply coloured with magical practices, making it compatible with popular Chinese Taoism (a combination of folk beliefs and practices and philosophy). Instead of the doctrine of no-self, early Chinese Buddhists taught the indestructibility of the soul. Nirvana became a kind of immortality. They also taught thetheory of karma, the values of charity and compassion, andthe need to suppress the passions. Until the end of the Han dynasty, there was a virtual symbiosis between Taoismand Buddhism and a common propagation of the means for attaining immortality through various ascetic practices. Itwas widely believed that Lao-tzu, the founder of Taoism, had been reborn in India as the Buddha. Many Chinese emperors worshiped Lao-tzu and the Buddha on the same altar. The first translations of Buddhist sutras into Chinese—namely those dealing with such topics as breath control and mystical concentration—utilized a Taoist vocabulary to make the Buddhist faith intelligible to the Chinese.

After the Han period, in the north of China, Buddhist monkswere often used by non-Chinese emperors for their political-military counsel as well as for their skill in magic. Atthe same time, in the south, Buddhism began to penetrate the philosophical and literary circles of the gentry. One of the most important contributions to the growth of Buddhismin China during this period was the work of translation. The most important of the early translators was the learned monk Kum(rajYva, who, before he was brought to the Chinese court in AD 401, had studied the Hindu Vedas, the occult sciences, and astronomy, as well as the Hinay(na and Mah(y(na sutras.

During the 5th and 6th centuries AD Buddhist schools from India became established, and new, specifically Chinese schools began to form. Buddhism was becoming apowerful intellectual force in China, monastic establishments were proliferating, and Buddhism was becoming well-established among the peasantry. Thus, it isnot surprising that, when the Sui dynasty (581–618) established its rule over a reunified China, Buddhism flourished as a state religion.

Developments during the T'ang dynasty (618–907)

The golden age of Buddhism in China occurred during the T'ang dynasty. Though the T'ang emperors were usually Taoists themselves, they tended to favour Buddhism, whichhad become extremely popular. Under the T'ang the government extended its control over the monasteries and the ordination and legal status of monks. From this time forward, the Chinese monk styled himself simply ch'en, or “a subject.”

During this period several Chinese schools developed their own distinctive approaches. Some of them produced comprehensive systematizations of the vast body of Buddhist texts and teachings. There was a great expansionin the number of Buddhist monasteries and the amount of land they owned. It was also during this period that many scholars made pilgrimages to India, heroic journeys that greatly enriched Buddhism in China, both by the texts that were acquired and by the intellectual and spiritual inspiration that was brought from India. Buddhism was never able to replace its Taoist and Confucian rivals, however, and in 845 the emperor Wu-tsung began a majorpersecution. According to records, 4,600 Buddhist temples and 40,000 shrines were destroyed, and 260,500 monks and nuns were forced to return to lay life.

Historical development

Central Asia and China

China

Buddhism after the T'ang

Buddhism in China never recovered completely from the great persecution of 845. It did maintain much of its heritage, however, and it continued to play a significant rolein the religious life of China. On the one hand, Buddhism retained its identity as Buddhism and generated new forms through which it was expressed. These included texts such as the yü lu, or “recorded sayings,” of famous teachers that were oriented primarily toward monks, as well as more literary creations such as the Journey to the West (written in the 16th century) and The Dream of the Red Chamber (18th century). On the other hand, Buddhism coalesced with the Confucian–Neo-Confucian and Taoist traditions to form a complex multi-religious ethos within which all three traditions were more or less comfortably encompassed.

Among the various schools the two that retained the greatest vitality were the Ch'an school (better known in the West by its Japanese name, Zen) which was noted for its emphasis on meditation, and the Pure Land tradition, which emphasized Buddhist devotion. The former school exerted the greatest influence among the cultured elite. It did so through various media, including the arts. For example, Ch'an artists during the Sung dynasty (960–1279) had a decisive impact on Chinese landscape painting. Artists used images of flowers, rivers, and trees, executed with sudden, deft strokes, to evoke an insight intothe flux and emptiness of all reality. The Pure Land tradition exerted a greater influence on the population as a whole and was sometimes associated with secret societies and peasant uprisings. But the two seemingly disparate traditions were often very closely linked. In addition, they were mixed with other Buddhist elements such as the so-called “masses for the dead” that had originally been popularized by the practitioners of Esoteric Buddhism.

During the early decades of the 20th century, China experienced a Buddhist reform movement aimed at revitalizing the Chinese Buddhist tradition and adapting Buddhist teachings and institutions to modern conditions. However, the disruptions caused by the Sino-Japanese War and the subsequent establishment of a communist government have not been helpful to the Buddhist cause. The Buddhist community was the victim of severe repression during the Cultural Revolution (1966–69). Since 1976 the Chinese government has pursued a more tolerant policy, but the extent of continuing Buddhist vitalityis difficult to determine.

Korea and Japan

Korea

Buddhism was first introduced into the Korean region whenit was divided into the three kingdoms of Paekche, Kogurys, and Silla. After Buddhism was brought to the northern kingdom of Kogurys from China in the 4th century, it gradually spread throughout the other Korean kingdoms. As often happened, the new faith was first accepted by the court and then extended to the people. After the unification of the country by the kingdom of Silla in the 660s, Buddhism began to flourish throughout Korea. The monk Wsnhyo (617–686) was one of the most impressive scholars and reformers of his day. He was married and taught an “ecumenical” version of Buddhism that included all branches and sects. He tried to use music,literature, and dance to express the meaning of Buddhism. Another scholar of the Silla era was ¤i-sang (625–702), who went to China and returned to spread the Hwasm (Hua-yen in Chinese) sect in Korea. The Chinese Ch'an sect (Zen) was introduced in the 8th century and, by absorbing the Korean versions of Hua-yen, T'ien-t'ai, and Pure Land, gradually became the dominant school of Buddhism in Korea, as it did in Vietnam.

Early Korean Buddhism was characterized by a this-worldlyattitude. It emphasized the pragmatic, nationalistic, and aristocratic aspects of the faith. Still, an indigenous traditionof shamanism influenced the development of popular Buddhism throughout the centuries. Buddhist monks danced, sang, and performed the rituals of shamans.

During the Korys period (935–1392), Korean Buddhism reached its zenith. During the first part of this period the Korean Buddhist community was active in the publication of the Tripitaka Koreana, one of the most inclusive editions of the Buddhist sutras up to that time. After 25 years of research, a monk by the name of ¤ich'sn (1055–1101) published an outstanding three-volume bibliography of Buddhist literature. ¤ich'sn also sponsored the growth of the T'ien-t'ai sect in Korea. He emphasized the need for cooperation between Ch'an and the other “Teaching” schools of Korean Buddhism.

Toward the end of the Korys period, Buddhism began to suffer from internal corruption and external persecution, especially that promoted by the Neo-Confucians. The government began to put limits on the privileges of the monks, and Confucianism replaced Buddhism as the religion of the state. Though the Yi dynasty (1392–1910) continued these restrictions, Buddhist monks and laymen fought bravely against the invasion of the Japanese armies under Toyotomi Hideyoshi (1537–98) in 1592 and 1597. In the decade before the annexation of Korea by Japan (1910), some effort was made to unify Korean Buddhism. These efforts, as well as the subsequent efforts of Buddhist“missionaries” from Japan, were largely in vain.

Since the end of World War II, Buddhism in Korea has been hampered by communist rule in North Korea and by the great vitality of Christianity in South Korea. Despite these challenges, Buddhists, particularly in South Korea, have preserved the old traditions and initiated new movements.

Historical development

Korea and Japan

Japan

Introduction of Buddhism to Japan

While Buddhism in China sent its roots down into the subsoil of the family system, in Japan it found anchorage inthe nation itself. The Buddhism that was initially introduced into Japan in the 6th century from Korea was regarded as atalisman (charm) for the protection of the country. The new religion was accepted by the powerful Soga clan but was rejected by others, thus causing controversies that resembled the divisions caused by the introduction of Buddhism in Tibet. In both countries, some believed that the introduction of Buddhist statues had been an insult to the native deities, resulting in plagues and natural disasters. Only gradually were such feelings overcome. Though the Buddhism of the Soga clan was largely magical, under the influence of Prince Shxtoku, who became regent of the nation in 593, other aspects of Buddhism were emphasized. Shxtoku lectured on various scriptures that emphasized the ideals of the layman and monarch, and he composed a “Seventeen-Article Constitution” in which Buddhism was adroitly mixed with Confucianism as the spiritual foundation of the state. In later times he was widely regarded as an incarnation of the bodhisattva Avalokiteˆvara.

Nara and Heian periods

During the Nara period (710–784), Buddhism became the state religion of Japan. Emperor Shxmu actively propagated the faith, making the imperial capital, Nara—with its “Great Buddha” statue (Daibutsu)—the national cult centre. Buddhist schools imported from China became established in Nara, and state-subsidized provincial temples (kokubunji) made the system effective at the local level.

After the capital was moved to Heian-kyx (modern Kyxto) in794, Buddhism continued to prosper. Chinese influence continued to play an important role, particularly through theintroduction of new Chinese schools that became dominantat the royal court. Mount Hiei and Mount Kxya became the centres for the new T'ien-tai (Tendai) and Esoteric (Shingon) schools of Buddhism, which were characterized by highly sophisticated philosophies and complex and refined liturgies. Moreover, Buddhism interacted with the indigenous Shintx and local tradition, and various distinctively Japanese patterns of Buddhist-oriented folk religion became very popular.

Historical development

Korea and Japan

Japan

New schools of the Kamakura period

The 12th and 13th centuries marked a turning point in Japanese history and in the history of Japanese Buddhism in particular. Late in the 12th century the imperial regime with its centre at Heian collapsed, and a new feudal government, or shogunate, established its headquarters at Kamakura. As a part of the same process, a number of newBuddhist leaders emerged and established schools of Japanese Buddhism. These reformers included proponentsof the Zen traditions such as Eisai and Dxgen; Pure Land advocates such as Hxnen, Shinran, and Ippen; and Nichiren, the founder of a new school that gained considerable popularity. The distinctively Japanese traditions these creative reformers and founders established became—along with many very diverse synthetic expressions of Buddhist-Shintx piety—integral components of a Buddhist-oriented ethos that structured Japanese religious life into the 19th century. Also during this period many Buddhist groups allowed their clergy to marry, with the result that temples often fell under the control of particular families.

The premodern period to the present

Under the Tokugawa shogunate (1603–1867), Buddhism became an arm of the government. Temples were used for registering the populace; this was one way of preventing the spread of Christianity, which the feudal government regarded as a political menace. This association with the Tokugawa regime made Buddhism quite unpopular at the beginning of the Meiji period (1868–1912), at least among the elite. At that time, in order to set up Shintx as the new state religion, it was necessary for Japan's new ruling oligarchy to separate Shintx from Buddhism. This led to theconfiscation of temple lands and the defrocking of many Buddhist priests.

During the period of ultranationalism (c. 1930–45), Buddhist thinkers called for uniting the East in one great “Buddhaland” under the tutelage of Japan. After the war, however, Buddhist groups, new and old alike, began to emphasize Buddhism as a religion of peace and brotherhood. During the postwar period the greatest visible activity among Buddhists has been among the “New Religions” such as Sxka-gakkai (“Value Creation Society”) and Risshx-Kxsei-kai (“Society for Establishing Righteousness and Friendly Relations”). During this period,Sxka-gakkai entered politics with the same vigour it had traditionally shown in the conversion of individuals. Because of its highly ambiguous but conservative ideology,the Sxka-gakkai-based political party (the Kxmeitx) is regarded with suspicion and fear by many Japanese.

Historical development

Tibet, Mongolia, and the Himalayan kingdoms

Tibet

Buddhism, according to the Tibetan tradition, was first given recognition in Tibet during the reign of Srong-brtsan-sgam-po (c. 627–c. 650). This king had two queens who were early patrons of the religion and were later regarded in popular tradition as incarnations of the Buddhist saviouress T(r(. The religion received active encouragement from Khri-srong-lde-btsan, during whose reign (c. 755–797) the first Buddhist monastery in Tibet wasbuilt at Bsam-yas (Samye), the first seven monks were ordained, and the celebrated Indian Tantric master Padmasambhava was invited to Tibet. A great deal of legend surrounds Padmasambhava, who was a mah(siddha (“master of miraculous powers”); he is creditedwith subduing the Bon spirits and demons (the spirits and demons associated with the indigenous religion of Tibet) and with subjugating them to the service of Buddhism. At the time, influences from Chinese Buddhism were strong, but it is recorded that at the Council of Bsam-yas (792–794)it was decided that the Indian tradition should prevail.

Following a period of suppression that lasted almost two centuries (from the early 800s to the early 1000s), Buddhism in Tibet enjoyed a revival. During the 11th and 12th centuries many Tibetans traveled to India to acquire and translate Buddhist texts and to receive training in Buddhist doctrine and practice. With the assistance of the renowned Indian master AtYˆa, who arrived in Tibet in 1042,Buddhism became established as the dominant religion. From this point forward Buddhism was the primary culture of the elite, was a powerful force in the affairs of state, and penetrated deeply into all aspects of Tibetan life.

One of the great achievements of the Buddhist community in Tibet was the translation into Tibetan of a vast corpus of Buddhist literature, including the Bka'-'gyur (“Translation of the Buddha Word”) and Bstan-'gyur (“Translation of Teachings”) collections. The Bka'-'gyur contains six sections: (1) Tantra, (2) Prajñ(p(ramit(, (3) Ratnak¨¡a, a collection of small Mah(y(na texts, (4) Avataisaka, (5) S¨tra (mostly Mah(y(na sutras, but some HYnay(na texts are included), and (6) Vinaya. The Bstan-'gyur contains 224volumes with 3,626 texts, divided into three major groups: (1) stotras (hymns of praise) in one volume, including 64 texts, (2) commentaries on tantras in 86 volumes, including 3,055 texts, and (3) commentaries on sutras in 137 volumes, including 567 texts.

A major development in the history of Tibetan Buddhism occurred in the late 14th or early 15th century when a greatBuddhist reformer named Tsong-kha-pa established the Dge-lugs-pa school, known more popularly as the Yellow Hats. In 1578, representatives of this school succeeded in converting the Mongol Altan Khan, and, under the Khan's sponsorship, their leader (the so-called third Dalai Lama) gained considerable monastic power. In the middle of the 17th century the Mongol overlords established the fifth Dalai Lama as the theocratic ruler of Tibet. The succeeding Dalai lamas, who were regarded as successive incarnationsof the bodhisattva Avalokiteˆvara, held this position duringmuch of the remainder of the premodern period, ruling fromthe capital, Lhasa.

The fifth Dalai Lama instituted the high office of Panchen Lama for the abbot of the Tashilhunpo monastery, located to the west of Lhasa. The Panchen lamas were regarded assuccessive incarnations of the buddha Amit(bha. Unlike the Dalai Lama, the Panchen Lama has usually been recognized only as a spiritual ruler.

Throughout much of Tibetan history many of the great monasteries were controlled by aristocratic abbots who were able to marry and pass along their monastic possessions to their sons. Monks were often warriors, and monasteries became armed fortresses. The Manchus in the18th century and subsequently the British, the Nationalist Chinese, and the Chinese communists have all tried to exploit the division of power between the Panchen and the Dalai lamas for their own ends. In 1959, after the Dalai Lama fled to India, the Chinese communists took over his temporal powers.

Under Chinese rule, Tibetan Buddhists have suffered periods of persecution, some of them severe. Not surprisingly, this has strengthened the bond between Buddhism and nationalist resistance.

Mongolia

The distinctive form of Buddhism that developed in Tibet has exerted a strong influence on neighbouring areas and peoples. Most important in this regard was the conversion of the Mongol tribes to the north and east of Tibet. There are some indications that Buddhism was present among the Mongols as early as the 4th century, but the sources are scarce. It is clear, however, that during the 13th centuryclose relationships developed between the Mongol court in China and some of the leaders of Tibetan Buddhism. Kublai Khan himself became a supporter of the Tibetan form of Buddhism. Kublai Khan's Tibetan advisers helped to develop a block script for the Mongolian language, and many Buddhist texts were translated from Tibetan into Mongolian. In general, however, the religion failed to gain widespread popular support during this period.

In 1578 a new situation developed when the Altan Khan accepted the Dge-lugs-pa version of the Tibetan tradition and supported its spread among his followers at all levels of Mongol society. Over the centuries the Mongols developed their own very rich Buddhist traditions. Mongolian scholars translated a large corpus of texts from Tibetan, and they produced their own sophisticated originaltexts. The Mongols based their Buddhist doctrine, practice, and communal organization on Tibetan models, but they developed and adapted them in a distinctive way.

Between 1280 and 1368 China was part of the Mongol empire, and the Mongols established their variant of Tibetan Buddhism in China. When they no longer held power in China, they continued to maintain the traditions they had developed in their homeland in the Central Asian steppes. During the 20th century, however, Mongolian Buddhism has been undermined by the communist regimes that have ruled in the Mongol areas of the Soviet Union, Mongolia, and China.

Historical development

Tibet, Mongolia, and the Himalayan kingdoms

The Himalayan kingdoms

Tibetan Buddhism has also exerted a considerable influence in the Himalayan kingdoms situated along Tibet's southern border. In Nepal Buddhism has been influenced by both India and Tibet. Though the Buddha was born in the southern part of the area that is now Nepal, at Lumbini, about 15 miles (24 kilometres) from Kapilavatthu (Kapilavastu), the Buddhist religion seems to have been actively propagated only later, probably under Aˆoka. By the 8th century Nepal had fallen into the cultural orbit of Tibet. A few centuries later, as a result of the Muslim invasions of India, both Hindus (such as the Brahmanic Gurkha aristocracy) and Buddhists took refuge in the country. In modern times Buddhist prayer wheels and flagsare reminders of the direct influence of Tibetan Buddhism. The Indian heritage is especially evident in the caste system that embraces Buddhists and non-Buddhists alike.

In Bhutan a Tibetan lama introduced Buddhism and a Tibetan style of hierarchical theocracy in the 17th century AD. The Buddhism practiced in Bhutan has been influenced by the Tibetan BkaÆ-brgyud-pa sect, which has stressed the magical benefits of living in caves and has not enforced on its clergy the discipline of celibacy. Buddhism in Bhutan, like Buddhism in Nepal, is coming into increasing contact with modernizing forces that are beginning to undermine many of its traditional practices.

Buddhism in the West

During the long course of Buddhist history, Buddhist influences have from time to time reached the Western world. Though the evidence is weak, some scholars have suggested that, about the beginning of the Christian era, Buddhist monks and teachings had reached as far as Egypt. There are occasional references to what seem to be Buddhist traditions in the writings of the Church Fathers. Inaddition, a version of the biography of the Buddha, known as the story of Barlaam and Josaphat, had a considerable dissemination in medieval Europe. In fact, the Buddha-figure in the story came to be recognized as a Christian saint.

Not until the modern period, however, is there evidence for a serious Buddhist presence in the Western world. The movement of Buddhism from Asia to the West that took place in the 19th and 20th centuries had two aspects. Beginning in the mid-19th century, Buddhism was introduced into the United States and other Western countries by large numbers of immigrants, first from China and Japan but more recently from other countries, especially countries of Southeast Asia. Buddhism gained a foothold among a significant number of Western intellectuals and—particularly during the 1960s and early '70s—among young people seeking new forms of religious experience and expression. The interest of Westerners in Buddhism has been increased by the work of Buddhist missionaries such as the Japanese scholar D.T. Suzuki (1870–1966) and a number of Tibetan Buddhist teachers who have come to the West since the Chinese conquest of their homeland in the late 1950s.

Historical development

Tibet, Mongolia, and the Himalayan kingdoms

The Himalayan kingdoms

Buddhism in the West

Basic teachings

The Buddha: divinization and multiplicity

In the Mah(y(na tradition, the Buddha is viewed not merelyas a human master and model but also as a supramundane being. He multiplies himself and is reflectedin a pentad of buddhas: Vairocana, Ak—obhya, Ratnasambhava, Amit(bha, and Amoghasiddhi. Some of these, taking the place of ‰(kyamuni, are revealers of doctrines and elaborate, complicated liturgies.

As Mah(y(na developed, a great deal of literature called Buddhavacana (Revelation of the Buddha) was circulated, but it went far beyond the ancient canons; it was proposed as the highest revelation, superseding prior texts. In this literature the teaching is viewed not as merely of one kind but as on various levels, each adapted to the intellectual capacity and karmic propensities of those who hear it. The Buddha is no longer simply the historical sage of the ‰(kyas but is now supramundane (lokottara). Even the sangha is of two types: that of this world and that beyond it.

The bodhisattva ideal

The essential premise of the bodhisattva ideal is to generate in one's own self the thought of enlightenment and to fulfill the vow to become a buddha, foregoing entrance into nirvana in order to remain in the world as longas there are creatures to be saved from suffering. With that vow the aspirant begins the career of a bodhisattva, which traverses 10 stages or spiritual levels (bh¨mi) and achievespurification through the practice of the 10 perfections (paramitas). These levels, which become progressively higher, elevate the bodhisattva to the condition of a buddha. The first six levels are preliminary, representing the true practice of the six perfections (generosity, morality, patience, vigour, concentration, and wisdom). Irreversibility occurs as soon as the seventh stage is reached. From this moment the bodhisattva assumes the true buddha nature, even though further purification and fortification must be achieved in the stages that follow. This is the moment when, having performed his duty, he engages in activity aimed at completely fulfilling the obligations of a bodhisattva. The difference between this and the precedingsix stages is that now the activity is explained as an innate and spontaneous impulse manifested unconstrainedly and therefore not subjected to doubts. Everything is now uncreated, ungenerated; thus, the body of the bodhisattva becomes identified more and more completely with the essential body (dharma-k(ya), with buddhahood, and with omniscience.

- Encyclopedia Brittanica, 2003.